Study Notes on “The Unification of Germany and Italy in the 19th Century”

The Unification of Germany and Italy: A Defining Moment in 19th-Century Europe

Introduction

The 19th century was a period of dramatic change and political transformation across Europe, marked by the gradual emergence of nation-states out of a fractured and often turbulent geopolitical landscape. Among the most significant events were the unifications of Germany and Italy, two regions that had long been divided into a myriad of smaller kingdoms, duchies, and city-states. These movements were not just political or military in nature, but were also shaped by economic, social, and cultural changes that had far-reaching consequences for European and global history.

The unification of Germany and Italy fundamentally reshaped the balance of power in Europe, laying the foundation for future conflicts and alliances, and contributing to the rise of nationalism as a driving force in world politics.

I. The Unification of Germany

1. Background to German Division

• The Holy Roman Empire: Prior to the 19th century, Germany was part of the Holy Roman Empire, a loose confederation of German-speaking states under the nominal leadership of the emperor.
• Fragmentation and Weakened Power: The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, following Napoleon’s conquests, left behind a fragmented German landscape. The region was divided into over 300 independent states.
• The Congress of Vienna (1815): After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna created the German Confederation, a loose association of 39 states, but it was weak and inefficient in fostering unity.

2. Key Factors Leading to Unification

• Rise of Nationalism:
  • The spread of nationalist ideas, particularly after the French Revolution and Napoleon’s rule, inspired a desire for a unified German state.
  • Intellectuals, philosophers, and writers promoted the concept of a common German culture, language, and heritage, which gained traction among the populace.
• Economic Factors:
  • The Zollverein, established in 1834, was a customs union that included most of the German states. It created a single economic market, fostering cooperation and a sense of shared identity among the German-speaking populations.
• Prussian Leadership:
  • The Kingdom of Prussia, the largest and most powerful of the German states, became the primary force behind the unification effort. Prussian leaders like Otto von Bismarck believed that a unified Germany would increase their influence in Europe.

3. Bismarck’s Role in German Unification

• Realpolitik and Diplomatic Mastery:
  • Otto von Bismarck, the Prime Minister of Prussia, pursued a policy of Realpolitik, which focused on pragmatic and often ruthless political decisions aimed at achieving practical outcomes.
• Key Events:
  • The Danish War (1864): Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and gained control of Schleswig and Holstein, two territories with German-speaking populations.
  • The Austro-Prussian War (1866): Bismarck skillfully manipulated tensions between Prussia and Austria, leading to a quick victory for Prussia. Austria was excluded from German affairs, and the North German Confederation was formed under Prussian leadership.
  • The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): Bismarck used tensions with France to unite the North German Confederation and southern German states against a common enemy. After defeating France, the southern states agreed to join the North German Confederation, and the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 in Versailles.

4. The German Empire

• Proclamation of the German Empire (1871): The unification was formalized with the crowning of King Wilhelm I of Prussia as Emperor of Germany (Kaiser) in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
• Structure and Power: The new German Empire was a federal monarchy with the Prussian king as the head of state. The Emperor had substantial powers, while the federal parliament (Reichstag) was elected by men over 25.

II. The Unification of Italy

1. Background to Italian Division

• Fragmentation of Italy: Before unification, Italy was a patchwork of various kingdoms, duchies, and city-states, including the Papal States, Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, controlled by Austria.
• Foreign Influence: Many parts of Italy were under foreign rule or influence. The Austrian Empire controlled Lombardy and Venetia, and France had interests in the region.

2. Factors Contributing to Unification

• Nationalist Movements:
  • The Italian nationalist movement, called the Risorgimento (Resurgence), was inspired by the principles of liberty, nationalism, and self-determination.
  • Leaders like Giuseppe Mazzini, founder of Young Italy, and Giuseppe Garibaldi became symbols of the push for unification through revolutionary and military means.
• Economic and Social Changes:
  • Italy’s fragmented economy hindered industrial development. A unified Italy promised economic modernization and integration, leading to a desire for unity among the middle and working classes.
• Leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia:
  • The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, led by King Victor Emmanuel II and his prime minister Count Cavour, became the driving force for Italian unification.
  • Cavour, like Bismarck, used diplomacy and strategic alliances to achieve his goals.

3. Key Events in the Unification of Italy

• The Role of Cavour:
  • Diplomatic Alliances: Cavour allied with France in the 1850s, using France’s military support to push Austria out of Italy. In 1859, after a brief war with Austria, France helped Italy acquire Lombardy.
• Garibaldi and the Southern Campaign:
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi, a popular nationalist leader, led the Expedition of the Thousand (1860), a military campaign that liberated the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from Bourbon rule. Garibaldi’s victory made him a hero of the unification movement.
  • Garibaldi’s Confrontation with Cavour: Although Garibaldi’s campaign in the south was successful, there were tensions between him and Cavour, as Garibaldi sought a republican Italy, while Cavour aimed for a constitutional monarchy under Victor Emmanuel II.
• Final Stages of Unification:
  • Rome and the Papal States: The capture of Rome in 1870, following the withdrawal of French troops due to the Franco-Prussian War, completed the unification process. Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.

4. The Kingdom of Italy

• Consolidation of Power: Victor Emmanuel II became the first king of Italy, and the Kingdom of Italy was formally proclaimed in 1861. However, it would take several more years to fully integrate all regions and consolidate power.
• Challenges of Unification: Despite formal unification, Italy faced significant challenges, including economic disparity between the north and south, political instability, and tensions with the Catholic Church, which remained hostile to the new government.

III. Comparative Analysis of the Unifications of Germany and Italy

1. Similarities Between the Two Movements

• Nationalism as a Driving Force: In both Germany and Italy, nationalism played a pivotal role in motivating the unification movements, as the people sought unity in the face of foreign dominance or fragmentation.
• Pragmatic Leadership: Both Otto von Bismarck and Count Cavour employed pragmatic strategies, often using war and diplomacy to achieve their goals. They were willing to make strategic compromises and alliances to further their cause.
• Military Action: Military conflicts, including the Austro-Prussian War and the Franco-Prussian War in Germany, and the Second Italian War of Independence and Expedition of the Thousand in Italy, were crucial in achieving unification.

2. Differences Between the Two Movements

• Methodology:
  • Germany: The unification of Germany was largely driven by the Prussian monarchy and the conservative aristocracy. It was achieved through a combination of war, diplomacy, and political maneuvering under Bismarck’s leadership.
  • Italy: Italy’s unification was more of a popular movement with significant contributions from Garibaldi’s revolutionary campaigns. While Cavour played a crucial diplomatic role, the unification process involved more grassroots support and mass mobilization.
• Religious Influence:
  • The unification of Italy was marked by the conflict between the newly-formed state and the Catholic Church, which resisted the loss of its territories, especially the Papal States. This was less of an issue in Germany, where the Catholic Church had less political influence in the newly unified empire.

Conclusion

The unifications of Germany and Italy in the 19th century were transformative events in European history that reshaped the continent’s political and social landscape. These movements, driven by nationalism, strategic leadership, and military action, marked the rise of two powerful nations that would play critical roles in European and world affairs in the decades that followed. Despite their differences, the processes of unification shared common themes of pragmatic leadership, economic integration, and the aspirations of the people for a unified, strong state.