The Hundred Years’ War: A Conflict That Changed History
Introduction
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) was one of the most pivotal and prolonged conflicts in European history, spanning over a century. It was not a continuous series of battles but rather a series of intermittent wars between two of the most powerful kingdoms in medieval Europe: England and France. At its core, the conflict was driven by territorial disputes, dynastic claims, and economic interests, but it had far-reaching consequences that extended beyond the battlefield. The war led to significant changes in the social, political, military, and cultural landscapes of both nations. The eventual victory of France marked the end of English ambitions on the continent and the rise of centralized monarchies that would shape the future of Europe.
This study module delves into the key causes, events, and consequences of the Hundred Years’ War, analyzing how it transformed medieval warfare, the political structures of France and England, and the identities of both nations.
1. The Roots of the Conflict
1.1. Dynastic Struggles and the Claim to the French Throne
The origins of the Hundred Years’ War lie in a complex web of dynastic claims and territorial disputes between England and France. The immediate cause of the war was the disputed succession to the French throne after the death of King Charles IV of France in 1328. Charles died without a male heir, and the closest claimant to the throne was Edward III of England, whose mother, Isabella of France, was the sister of Charles IV. However, the French nobility chose Philip VI, a cousin of Charles, as the new king, citing the Salic Law, which prohibited inheritance through the female line.
Edward III, feeling his right to the throne had been denied, declared war on Philip VI in 1337, thus igniting the conflict. The English king’s claim to the French crown would remain a major factor throughout the war.
1.2. Territorial Disputes and English Possessions in France
Beyond the question of succession, England’s long-standing territorial possessions in France also fueled tensions. The English monarchy controlled the Duchy of Guyenne (Aquitaine), a large region in southwestern France. Though it was technically a vassal state to the French crown, the English kings had grown increasingly assertive in their demands for greater autonomy. Disputes over land, trade, and the rights of English subjects living in French territories further exacerbated the conflict between the two kingdoms.
2. Major Phases of the Hundred Years’ War
2.1. The Early Phase (1337-1360): English Dominance
The early years of the war saw England achieve significant military victories, largely due to the skill of its archers and the effective use of the longbow. In 1346, Edward III’s forces defeated the French at the Battle of Crécy, a crucial battle that demonstrated the power of the English longbow against French knights. The victory was followed by the English siege and capture of Calais in 1347, which gave England a vital port in France.
The Treaty of Brétigny (1360) was signed at the end of this phase, marking a temporary halt to hostilities. Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne but retained significant territorial gains, including the Duchy of Guyenne.
2.2. The Crisis and French Recovery (1369-1415)
Following the Treaty of Brétigny, hostilities resumed as French fortunes fluctuated. The Treaty was not fully honored by both sides, leading to renewed conflict. Charles V of France, known as “Charles the Wise,” reasserted French power, recovering much of the land lost to England. This period saw France under the guidance of strong leadership slowly turning the tide against England, with France’s military success gaining momentum.
2.3. The Lancastrian Phase (1415-1453): England’s Decline
The most famous phase of the Hundred Years’ War occurred under the leadership of Henry V of England, who revived English fortunes with the dramatic victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. The English army, though outnumbered, decisively defeated the French, and Henry V’s subsequent campaigns allowed him to secure a significant portion of France.
However, the success was short-lived. Following Henry V’s death in 1422, his infant son, Henry VI, succeeded to the throne. The French, under the leadership of Joan of Arc, rallied to resist English occupation. Joan’s victory at the Siege of Orléans (1429) marked the turning point in the war, as French forces regained momentum. By 1453, France had driven the English out of all their French possessions except Calais, bringing the war to a definitive close.
3. Key Figures in the Hundred Years’ War
3.1. Edward III of England
Edward III was a central figure in the early stages of the war. His claim to the French throne was the initial cause of the conflict. A skilled military leader, Edward implemented revolutionary strategies, including the use of the longbow and the deployment of a professional army. His reign marked the zenith of English power during the war.
3.2. Philip VI of France
Philip VI was the French monarch at the start of the war and his decision to deny Edward III’s claim to the throne set the stage for the prolonged conflict. Philip’s leadership faced numerous challenges, particularly in the early years when England dominated French forces.
3.3. Joan of Arc
Perhaps the most iconic figure of the war, Joan of Arc was a peasant girl who claimed to have been divinely inspired to lead France to victory. Her leadership at the Siege of Orléans and her support of Charles VII’s coronation helped restore French morale and turned the tide of the war in favor of France.
3.4. Henry V of England
Henry V was the English king who revitalized English fortunes with his aggressive military campaigns. His victory at Agincourt and his subsequent treaty with France made him one of the most celebrated English monarchs of the period. However, his untimely death in 1422 led to the decline of English power.
4. Impact of the Hundred Years’ War
4.1. Social and Economic Changes
The Hundred Years’ War had profound social and economic impacts on both England and France. In France, the war caused widespread devastation, particularly in the northern regions, where agriculture and trade were severely disrupted. The English economy also suffered, especially as the war placed heavy burdens on the treasury and disrupted trade.
In both kingdoms, the war led to increased taxation, which created social unrest. The peasants, already burdened by feudal obligations, rose in revolt in both England (Peasants’ Revolt of 1381) and France. However, the war also gave rise to greater social mobility, particularly for common soldiers who fought in the army.
4.2. The Decline of Feudalism
The war significantly weakened the feudal system in both England and France. The reliance on paid professional soldiers rather than feudal levies reduced the power of the nobility, and the war laid the foundations for the rise of centralized monarchies. Both English and French monarchs increasingly relied on standing armies and taxation rather than the support of feudal lords.
4.3. Development of National Identities
The Hundred Years’ War played a crucial role in the development of national identities in both England and France. In England, the war fostered a sense of nationalism, particularly after victories such as Agincourt. The French, on the other hand, were unified by leaders like Joan of Arc, whose actions rallied the French people around their king and led to a strong sense of French identity.
4.4. Military Innovations
The Hundred Years’ War marked a shift in military technology and tactics. The English longbow became a dominant weapon, particularly in the Battle of Crécy and Agincourt. The use of gunpowder in cannons also began to reshape the nature of siege warfare. These technological innovations laid the foundation for the evolution of modern armies.
5. Conclusion: The Aftermath and Legacy of the War
The Hundred Years’ War fundamentally changed the political, social, and military landscape of Europe. While the war ended in a French victory, with England losing nearly all of its French possessions, it also marked the beginning of the end of medieval feudalism. The war accelerated the rise of centralized monarchies, as both France and England moved toward more modern forms of governance.
The legacy of the Hundred Years’ War can be seen in the emergence of strong national identities, particularly in France and England. Furthermore, the conflict had profound impacts on European warfare, introducing new military tactics and technologies that would shape the future of conflict for centuries to come.
